British Administration: Palestinian
Mandate (1922-48)
After World War I, Feisal who
would become King of first Syria and then Iraq, proposed to the Zionist leader
Chaim Weitzman, a mutual partnership in developing a Jewish homeland in
Palestine. Arabs leaders subsequently rejected this understanding, claiming
that the Allies had not met their commitment to the Feisal's father Sherif
Hussein. Arabs mobs conducted the first major anti-Jewish riots in Palestine (1920). The British introduced Western
legal concepts to Palestine. One of the actions taken was abolishing “dehimmitude” .Under
this system, non-Muslim dhimmis lived in a system of institutionalized
subjugation. Political rights were denied to all but Muslims. Changing this
system was a major concern of Palestinians and other Arabs. As the number of
Zionist immigrants increased and the area of land expanded, conflicts began to
develop with the Arabs. Here Haj Amin el-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of
Jerusalem, played a central role. Both sides blamed the other as scattered acts
of violence occurred. There were more Arabs attacks on Jewish settlements than
Jewish attacks, but there were violence perpetrated by both sides. The worst
attack occurred at Hebron where Arabs massacred 69 Jews (1929). With Jews being murdered by
Arabs, David Ben-Gurion organized the Haganah--the Jewish Defense Force. The Haganah
began military training in secret. The British tried to defuse the situation,
arresting both Arabs and Jews and confiscating weapons. Jews claimed that
because of the importance of the Arabs in British colonial policy, that the
British generally favored the Arabs. Here we are not sure, but it is a topic we
need to pursue. Even a neutral police, however, favored the Arabs. Palestine was surrounded by Arab states or colonies
to become Arab states. Thus if the Jews in Palestine had no weapons they would be defenseless
if the neighboring Arab states invaded. The "Arab Revolt" led by the
Grand Mufti targeted both the British and the Jews (1936-39).
World War I broke out in Europe (August 1914). Palestine at the beginning of the War was a part of
the Ottoman Empire. The population was largely Arab with
some Jewish settlements as a result of the European Zionist movement. The
Germans sought to bring the declining Ottoman Empire into the War to draw Russian and British resources from
the two main fronts of the War. The Ottomans joined the Central Powers (October
1914). They had suffered significant territorial losses in the Balkans and the Caucuses
at the hands of the Russians and saw allying themselves with the Germans was
one way of regaining lost territory from the be leagued Russians. The War
quickly turned into a disaster when the Ottoman army invading the Russian Caucuses
was decisively defeated. The Ottomans launched an offensive from Palestine soon after entering the War (November
1914). They crossed the Sinai and at some locations reached the Suez Canal, but were beaten back by the British. The
British encouraged an Arab Revolt in Arabia which developed into a major threat to the Ottomans. The Arab
Revolt assisted by T.E. Lawrence helped weakened the Ottoman position in Arabia and Palestine. Palestine turned from an Ottoman backwater into the
frontline of World war I. The British made commitments to the Arabs about an
independent Arab state after the War. They made conflicting commitments to
their French ally. Zionists were initially split by the War. There were
Zionists in all the major belligerent powers. The Balfour Declaration would
largely change this. The British mounted a major offensive Against the Ottomans
in Palestine. The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force
commanded by Field Marshall Edmund Allenby at first made little progress
against the Ottomans. The British finally took Jerusalem (December 1917). Australian Light Cavalry
played an important role. The Ottoman Army in the Levant was finally broken at the Battle of
Megiddo (September 1918). The British with the Arab Army on its right then
moved to seize Damascus. The British during the War made conflicting commitments
to the Arabs, Zionists, and even the French. The result was that after the War
they found maintaining order in the Palestine Mandate a very difficult undertaking.
The Palestinian Arabs were unwilling to participate in Mandate
institutions.
Sir Mark Sykes and Charles Picot
during World War I negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement. This set out the
British-French colonial spheres in the Middle East. The Agreement signed in 1916 essentially
divided the Middle
East which had
been dominated by the Ottoman Empire into areas of influence for France, Britain and others. The French would seize
control over much of the Levant, Syria and Lebanon. Most of Palestine was to have been under international
control. Though the wording of the agreement mentions the possibility of
cessions by either side to an Arab state. The Agreement stirred up a
controversy for a variety of reasons. It meant that Britain was not honoring the promises Sir Henry
McMahon made to Sheriff Hussayn (1915). The Sykes-Picot agreement specifically
excluded the districts 'west of the districts of Damascus, Homs, Hama and Aleppo' as listed in the Hussayn-McMahon
agreement, extending the line south so that Palestine was excluded from Arab control. The Sykes
Picot Agreement also excluded two substantial areas that would be under direct
British and French control.
Balfour Declaration (1917)
British Foreign Secretary Arthur
James Balfour committed Britain to establishing a Jewish homeland in Palestine (November 2, 1917). This is known as the
Balfour Declaration. At the time the British offensive in Palestine was moving toward Jerusalem. Balfour's statement was included in a
letter to Lionel Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron of Rothschild, of the Jewish
banking family. Rothschild was an important British Jewish leader and played a
role in financing the British war effort. Two important Zionist leaders (Chaim Weitzman
and Nahum Sokolov) were seeking British support for a Jewish homeland,
particularly important as it became increasingly clear that the British were
going to end Ottoman rule of Palestine. The British were hedging their bets as
they also wanted Arab support. The Balfour declaration was carefully worded. It
was a commitment for a Jewish state. It was, however, a substantial commitment
from the country that was about to seize Palestine.
Syrian and Iraqi Independence (1919-20)
The Allies after World War
occupied the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Part of the Allied force was the irregular Army which the
British had helped form and arm. British military authorities took control. The
Arabs convened the General Syrian Congress in Damascus (July 1919). The Congress demanded that
the Allies recognize Syria as an independent Arab state. The Arabs
at the time were thinking not only of modern Syria, but also of Lebanon, Jordan and Palestine. The Congress recognized Emir Faisal as
king. When the Allied governments did not act on the Congress' demand, the
Congress unilaterally proclaimed Syrian independence and confirmed Faisal as
King (March 1920). Arab authorities in Mesopotamia (Iraq) took similar actions and declared
independence as a monarchy under Abdullah. The League of Nations Council
rejected both declarations.
San Remo Conference (April 1920)
The Allied powers held a
conference in San Remo, Italy to decide on the future of the largely
conquered territories seized from the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. Representatives of Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, and Belgium attended the conference. The Arabs and
other groups in the territories like the Kurds and Jews were not invited to
participate. Members of the supreme council of the Allies took the leading
parts in the Conference. The representatives discussed how to execute
provisions of the 1919 Versailles Treaty. The elements of a peace treaty with Turkey were approved. And mandates for the Middle East territories were allotted. The
representatives divided the concerned territories according to their stage
of economic and political development and their location. They were then
assigned to individual powers. Iraq and Palestine were assigned to Britain. Syria along with Lebanon was assigned to France.
Palestine after the War
The Arabs in Palestine were suspicious about British intentions.
They were aware of the Balfour Declaration and commitment to a Jewish Homeland.
We are not sure about attitudes among Christian Arabs. Rumors circulated within
the Arab community. Some saw the British as modern-day Crusaders. There were no
important Muslim voices endorsing the delineation of Palestine (1920). Important Muslim leasers
protested. Muslims west of the Jordan generally desired to be part of the
kingdom proclaimed by the Syrian National Congress to be ruled by Emir Feisal.
There was no real sense of Palestinian nationality at the time. Many saw
themselves as southern Syrians. A young anti-Semitic Amin al-Husayni strongly
advocated becoming part of the new Arab Syrian kingdom. With the French
occupation and ouster of Emir Feisal (July 1920), this option was no longer
available. Then the idea of a Palestinian entity began to take hold. Amin
al-Husayni began to emerge as a Palestinian leader, in part by assassinating
rivals with more moderate outlooks.
The Koran is the fundamental
foundation of Muslim society. Thus we need to look at what the Koran says about
Jews to fully understand modern attitudes. It is useful to look at Arab
attitudes toward the Jews both in historical times and in the modern era (19th
and early 20th century) before the conflict in Palestine became pronounced. One important aspect
to bear in mind is that the Jews since the Islamic era (7th century) have been
a small minority in Arab countries without political power. The Arabs thus for
centuries were the dominant power and even after conquest by the Ottomans, the
Islamic religion was dominant. Thus while there was a varying spirit of
toleration, there was no tradition in the Arab world of accepting Jews on a
basis of equality, either morally or before the law. Until World War I, most of
the Arab world was a colonial dependency or protectorate of either the Ottoman
or different European powers. It is useful to look at what Arab political or
religious leaders had to say about the Jews as well as what Jews had to say
about the Arabs.
French Mandate over Syria (July 1920)
French troops occupied Damascus (July 1920) implementing the terms of the
mandate. The French ordered Emir Faisal to leave Syria. He was thus forced into exile. The
British proceeded to install him as King of Iraq. French rule in Syria was authoritative. There was not attempt
to include the local population in the administration or to promote the growth
of local government as pursued by the British. Local leaders encouraged
resistance to the French. After a serious revolt (1925), French military
government began to move toward a degree of self-government. This had been an
element of the League Mandated, but largely ignored by French authorities. The
French joined the Aleppo and Damascus provinces of Syria !935). The French then made Lebanon an independent republic under French
control (1936).
British Administration
Britain thus began replacing the military
administration with a civil administration. Sir Herbert Samuel was appointed
High Commissioner. Samuel had been an advocate for a Jewish homeland during the
War.
Treaty of Serves (August 1920)
The Treaty of Serves was the
Peace treaty ending World War I between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies. It was signed at Sevres, France (August 19, 1920). The signatories
included the Ottoman
Empire
(transitioning into Turkey) on the one hand and the Allies
(excluding Russia and the United States) on the other. The treaty essentially
liquidated the Ottoman
Empire and
virtually indeed Turkish sovereignty. The Treaty implemented the decisions
taken at the San Remo Conference. There were several provisions related to the
Middle Eastern territories of the former Ottoman Empire. Turkey renounced sovereignty over Mesopotamia (Iraq), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz (Arabian Peninsula). Palestine (at the time including Jordan) became a British mandate. Syria (including Lebanon) became a French mandate. The future of
the Kingdom of Hejaz would be decided in a dynastic struggle
between the Hashemites and Saudis. Turkey retained Anatolia but committed to granting autonomy to Kurdistan. Armenia became a separate republic under
international guarantees, but of course the Armenian population in Anatolia had been decimated in the Turkish engineered genocide. Smyrna (modern Izmir) and adjacent areas was placed under
Greek administration. A plebiscite was to determine its future. Turkey also ceded parts of Eastern Thrace and certain Aegean islands to Greece and the Dodecanese and Rhodes to Italy. In Europe Turkey only retained Constantinople (modern Istanbul) and surrounding area. This included the
Zone of the Straits (Dardanelles and Bosphorus) which was neutralized and internationalized. The
Allies also obtained control over the Turkish economy with the capitulation
rights. While signed, many aspects of the Treaty were never implemented. The
treaty was accepted by the Ottoman government of Sultan Mehmed Vahdettin VI at Istanbul. The rising nationalist government of
Kemal Atatürk at Ankara rejected it. Atatürk's military forces proved decisive. He
negotiated a separate treaty with the Soviet Union. And he scored victories in the Turkish-Greek War 1920-22), driving the
Greeks from western Anatolia. Britain and France would have had to have renewed the War to
force acceptance of the Treaty. Instead they negotiate a new treaty in
1923--the Treaty of Lausanne. The provisions affecting the former Ottoman
territories held (Articles 94 and 95). Here there was a clear differentiation
concerning Palestine. Article 94 specified that the Mandates being created for Iraq and Syria specified that the existence of the
communities living there would be provisionally recognized as independent nations
Article 95 included no such commitment for Palestine.
Arab Resort to Violence: Anti-Jewish Riots
(1920-21)
After World War I, Feisal who
would become King of first Syria and then Iraq, proposed to the Zionist leader
Chaim Weitzman, a mutual partnership in developing a Jewish homeland in
Palestine. Arabs leaders subsequently rejected this understanding, claiming
that the Allies had not met their commitment to the Feisal's father Sherif
Hussein. Arabs mobs conducted the first major anti-Jewish riots in Palestine (1920-21). The first Arab riots occurred
in Jerusalem around Passover--"Bloody Passover
(March 1920). Attacks on Jews had occurred in Muslim and Christian countries
for centuries. Unfounded rumors of Jewish attacks on Arabs caused the riots.
British military authorities did not at first intervene to protect Jews after
the Arab attacks begun. The British did arrest Vladimir Jabotinsky and other
Jews for organizing a self-defense league. Arab violence spread to other areas.
Arabs killed Joseph Trumpeldor and others defending Tel Hai, a settlement in
the Upper Galilee (April 1920). Jews seeing that the
British authorities were not defending them, founded the Haganah (June 15,
1920). While there is no conclusive evidence that Haj Amin al-Husseini was responsible
for initiating the riots, there is ample evidence that he became one of the
leaders urging Palestinians to kill Jews and loot their homes. Further violence
occurred in Jaffa. Arabs brutally murdered Jewish author Y. Brenner in Jaffa. This was followed by attacks on Rehovot,
Petach Tikva, and other Jewish areas (May 1921). When the violence subsided,
the Jewish death toll was 47 with 140 wounded. Among those killed was Yosef
Hayyim Brenner, the respected socialist pioneer and author. Arab casualties
totaled 48 killed and 73 wounded. Almost all the Arab casualties were at the
hands of the British military trying to restore order. The Jews learned an
important lesson. They were vulnerable to Arab violence and had virtually no
self defense capability. main lesson was the power of the Arab masses and the
relative ineffectiveness of the Jewish defense. Sir Herbert Samuel, British
High Commissioner, in an effort to restore order, attempted to appease the Arab
rioters. He ordered a temporary halt to Jewish immigration. He also began
negotiations with the Arab Executive Committee. One outcome of the effort to
restore order was the White Paper issued by Colonial Secretary Winston
Churchill (June 1922). The Haycraft Commission investigated the violence and found,
"The racial strife was begun by the Arabs, and rapidly developed into a
conflict of great violence between Arabs and Jews, in which the Arab majority,
who were generally the aggressors, inflicted most of the
casualties."
Cairo Conference (1921)
The British at the end of World
War I seized Arab-populated countries from the Ottoman Empire. The British seized Palestine and advanced to Damascus. A second offensive in Mesopotamia seized what was to become Iraq. Britain and France after World War I divided up the Arab
lands seized from the Ottoman Empire at the Cairo Conference. The division followed the lines of the
Sykes-Picot Treaty. The British created Trans Jordan under Emir Abdullah and
installed King Faisal in Iraq. Syria was placed under French control. The
British and French also endorsed the Balfour Declaration. The League of Nations approved the British Mandate of Palestine
(July 7, 1922),
The League
of Nations
President Wilson saw at the
center of a new international order, a League of Nations. As soon as he returned home from the
Versailles Peace Conference, he launched upon a cross-country tour to promote
the Treaty and U.S. membership in the League. He told
Americans, "At the front of this great treaty is put the Covenant of the League of Nations. It will also be at the front of the
Austrian, treaty and the Hungarian treaty and the Bulgarian treaty and the
treaty with Turkey. Every one of them will contain the
Covenant of the League
of Nations,
because you cannot work any of them without the Covenant of the League of Nations. Unless you get the united, concerted
purpose and power of the great Governments of the world behind this settlement,
it will fall down like a house of cards. There is only one power to put behind
the liberation of mankind, and that is the power of mankind. It is the power of
the united moral forces of the world, and in the Covenant of the League of Nations the moral forces of the world are
mobilized." [Wilson]
Winston Churchill: Colonial Secretary (1921)
Winston Churchill had played a
major role in Parliament during World War I. A few years after the War,
Prime-Minister Lloyd George appointed Churchill to be Secretary of State for
the Colonies and was given special instructions to deal with the new Middle
eastern mandates--Palestine and Mesopotamia (Iraq). Lloyd George was especially untested in
reducing the administrative cost. Here Arab resort to violence was having the
affect of keeping administrative costs high. Another goal was to carry out the
pledge made in the Balfour Doctrine. A middle East Department was established
in the Colonial Office under John Shuckburgh, an experienced India hand, to assist Churchill. Churchill also
sought ought T.E. Lawrence to advise him about the Arabs. Churchill was a
strong proponent of the Balfour Doctrine. He spoke with French President
Alexandre Millerand who was critical of British support for a Jewish national
homeland, fearing it would 'disturb' the Arab world. Churchill continued to
support the commitment and was impressed with Samuel's even-handed approach.
Churchill's vision for the World War I mandates was that Emir Feisal would be
the king of Iraq and Abdullah the king of Trans Jordan.
The remaining area of western Palestine between the Jordan River and Mediterranean would be the Jewish national homeland as
promised by the World War I Balfour Declaration. [Gilbert, pp. 46-47.]
T.E. Lawrence
T.E. Lawrence is better known as
Lawrence of Arabia. Because of his academic background and linguistic
abilities, he was posted to Cairo during the War. There he was chosen to
work with the Arabs and played a major role in the Arab Revolt (1917-18). He
helped the Arab Revolt launched by Sherif Hussein and his sons. Lawrence helped the Arabs take the Turkish
fortress at Aqaba and perfect the guerrilla tactics that largely forced the
Turks out of the Arabian
Peninsula. Lawrence managed to arrange a commitment from Emir
Feisal (Sherif Hussein's eldest son), Emir Feisal agreed that in exchange for
Arab sovereignty over Mesopotamia (Iraq), Jordan, and Syria that his father would not pursue claims
to Palestine. [Lawrence]
The League Mandate (1922)
The League of Nations in the World War I peace settlements was
given responsibility for the former German and Ottoman colonies. Mandates to
administer these colonies were awarded to Britain and France. Britain was awarded responsibility among other
areas Iraq and Palestine. France received Syria and Lebanon. British colonies which were moving
toward independence received some of these awards. Australia received New Guinea. South Africa received South West Africa (Namibia). Japan received the Caroline Islands. Several of these areas were matters of
significant international dispute in later years. The most important, of course
was Palestine. The terms of the British Mandate in Palestine was were approved by the League of
Nations Council (July 24, 1922). Formal authorization became effective (September
29, 1923).
English, Arabic, and Hebrew were all to be official languages in the Palestine
Mandate. The Mandate covered the territory of what is now Jordan, the West Bank, Israel, and Gaza. The terms of the League Mandate for
Palestine were established by the League of Nations. Article 6 clearly permitted Jewish
immigration and settlement. The text read, "The Administration of
Palestine, while ensuring that the rights and position of other sections of the
population are not prejudiced, shall facilitate Jewish immigration under
suitable conditions and shall encourage, in co-operation with the Jewish Agency
referred to in Article 4, close settlement by Jews on the land, including State
lands and waste lands not required for public purposes." The United States
Senate rejected the Versailles Treaty, primarily because of the League of Nations provisions. Thus the League approval of
the mandate did not include any American commitment. The U.s. Congress by a
joint resolution endorsed the concept of the Jewish national home (June 30,
1922).
Arab Reaction
Arab spokesmen led by Sharif Husayn
and his sons in contrast opposed the terms of the League Mandate in Palestine. The Covenant of the League of Nations explicitly endorsed popular
determination. And the Arabs were a clear majority in Palestine. They also pointed out that the League
Covenant specifically declared that all obligations and understandings
inconsistent with it were abrogated. The Arabs argued with some validity that
this meant that both the Balfour Declaration and the Sykes-Picot Agreement were
null and void.
British Administration
The British sought to bring about
a peaceful accommodation between the Arabs, Jews, and others in Palestine. The first British high commissioner in Palestine was Sir Herbert Samuel's. He had the
unenviable job of establishing order between the antagonistic communities. From
the beginning, Samuels found that the Palestinian Arab leaders were opposed to
any peaceful accommodation with the Zionist community. Samuels who was Jewish
had two often conflicting principles: liberalism and Zionism. He attempted to
introduced Western legal concepts to Palestine. One of the actions taken was abolishing
“dhimmitude”. Under this system, non-Muslim dhimmis lived in a system of
institutionalized subjugation. Political rights were denied to all but Muslims.
Changing this system was a major concern of Palestinians and other Arabs.
Samuel's permitted open Jewish immigration and land purchases. The result was
the Third Aliyah (1919-23). During this relatively brief window, thousands of
highly committed Zionists entered Palestine. Most had a secular Socialist
orientation. They made a major contribution to the kibbutz system--a form of
communal farming. Not only did the kibutzes make an important contribution to
Jewish farming, but the communities formed allowed for a degree of collective
defense that individual family farms would not have. Samuels in accordance with
League standards proposed a move toward representative institutions. He called
for a legislative council, an advisory council, and an Arab agency comparable
to the Jewish Agency. Had the Palestinian Arabs accepted this proposal, they
would have dominated the legislative council and other Mandate institutions.
They could have then moved to curtail Jewish immigration and land purchases.
The Jews were in no position to oppose Samuel's proposal. They were clearly
based on the League Covenant of the League of Nations and the mandatory system. Ironically it
was the Palestinian Arabs who rejected Samuels' proposals. They apparently
concluded that participation in Mandate institutions would represent acceptance
of the Balfour Declaration and a Jewish Homeland. The Arabs rejected all of
Samuel's proposals, including a legislative council, an advisory council, and
an Arab agency. This also essentially meant that there would be no
institutional base in which the Arab and Jewish communities could
consult.
Creation of Jordan
The British changed their minds
about the future of the Palestine Mandate soon after World war I. The British
were concerned about maintaining order and appeasing the Arabs became an
important part of this. Winston Churchill opted for what he described a
"Hashemite solution." The Hashemite family were connected to the Hejaz (Saudi Arabia) and had no connection with Palestine. Churchill decided to appease Prince
Abdullah by offering him a position of authority in Transjordan. Churchill submitted a memorandum to the
Cairo Conference (March 1921). It read in part, " ... establishing a
Jewish National Home in Palestine west of the Jordan and a separate Arab entity in Palestine east of the Jordan. Abdullah, if installed in authority in Transjordan, could preside over the creation of such
an Arab entity." The British decided to install Abdullah who they had
worked with during the war as Emir of Transjordan. The British submitted a
memorandum to the League
of Nations in
which they concluded that the provisions of the Mandate document calling for
the establishment of a Jewish national home were not applicable to the area
east of the Jordan--Transjordan. This essentially reduced by about 80
percent the Mandate land open to Jewish settlement and a future Jewish Homeland
(September 16, 1922). The British decision was an attempt to satisfy Arab
complaints about Jewish immigration and any future Jewish homeland. Churchill and
the British carried off some legal slight of hand. Transjordan was part of the League of Nations
Mandate. It was not within the authority of the British as the Mandate power to
unilaterally partition Palestine. The British did just this, although not formally. The
British accepted the Arab character and administration of Trans-Jordan,
essentially an Arab province of Palestine. The British intended this as a temporary
measure, but over time it became a permanent part of League Mandated Palestine
and eventually an independent country. Once Trans-Jordan was created, all
Jewish migration and settlement was stopped. This was a measure without basis
in the Balfour Declaration (1917) or the League Mandate (1922). The British
decided on a de facto arrangement to limit Jewish immigration to the 23 percent
of Palestine west of the Jordan River. The British action had two primary
impacts. First as noted above, it closed off Jewish immigration west of the Jordan River. Second by separating the large area east
of the Jordan it meant that the Jews constituted a
larger part of the population east of the Jordon than they had in the overall
Mandate area. The British added an additional 60,000 square km. of desert to Transjordan (1925). This formed a territorial
"arm" of land to connect Transjordan with Iraq, separating Syria from the Arabian Peninsula. Palestine continued to be formerly administered by Britain under the Mandate until Transjordan was granted independence (1946).
Jewish Immigration
Arab-Palestinian Economy
One poorly pursued topic is the
Palestinian economy and the impact of the influx of Jewish settlers to Palestine. Anti-Jewish sentiment among the Arabs
existed before the Zionist settlement. There is not doubt that the influx gave
rise to increased anti-Jewish sentiment. This is a normal reaction in any
country, just as the Irish immigration in America gave rise to anti-Irish sentiment. Into
this volatile mix the Grand-Mufti of Palestine promoted violence against the Jews. This
dynamic has been fairly well documented. Less well addressed in the economic
condition of the Palestinians and the impact of the Jewish Zionist immigration.
Palestinians commonly complain that the Jews purchased land from poor
Palestinians. The objection here is that the resulting land was lost to the
Palestinian community. Palestinian poverty was of course something the Jews did
not create or the West. It was a fact when the British took Palestine (1918). It was the result of Ottoman and
Arab backwardness and the failure to enter the modern world. We have seen
reports that the economic impact of the Jewish immigration was to stimulate the
Palestinian economy and the Palestinians thus benefited economically from the
growth in the economy. One author maintains that not only did the Palestinian
economy grow more rapidly than was the case during the Ottoman Era, but it grew
more rapidly than was the case for neighboring Arab-populated areas like
Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan, and Egypt. Our information on this is still
limited. We do know that the Arab population increased, one indicator of a
thriving economy. We are not sure, however, of this was the result of a rising
birth-rate or immigration from neighboring Arab states. This is another topic
we hope to pursue.
Jewish Agency (1929)
The League Mandate given to the
British recognized the "historical connection of the Jewish people with Palestine" and called upon the mandatory power
to "secure establishment of the Jewish National Home." The League
recognized "an appropriate Jewish agency" for advice and cooperation
to that end. The League specifically recognized the WZO as the appropriate
vehicle. The League formally established the Jewish Agency to facilitate
immigration (1929). The League when establishing the Jewish Agency added a
proviso that the "rights and position of other sections of the population
are not prejudiced." The WZO saw the League approval of the Mandate system
as an important step toward the achievement of a Homeland. There was no unanimity
within the Zionist community at the time as to just what form a Jewish Homeland
would take. A Jewish nation state was not seen as achieve-able by many
Zionists. Only gradually did this become the movement's goal. It was the
experience with the Arabs and British in Palestine and the NAZI Holocaust that led to the
proclamation of the State of Israel (1948).
Disturbances (1929)
As the number of Zionist
immigrants increased and the area of land expanded, conflicts began to develop
with the Arabs. Here Haj Amin el-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of
Jerusalem, played a central role. Both sides blamed the other as scattered acts
of violence occurred. There were more Arabs attacks on Jewish settlements than
Jewish attacks, but there were violent actions perpetrated by both sides. The
Jews had learned the lesson of the 1920-21 no self-defense preparations. The
worst Arab attack occurred at Hebron where Arabs massacred 69 Jews
(1929).
The Haganah
With Jews being murdered by
Arabs, David Ben-Gurion gave increasing attention to the Haganah--the Jewish
Defense Force. The Haganah increased efforts to obtain arms. They also began
military training in secret.
British Actions
The British tried to defuse the
situation, arresting both Arabs and Jews and confiscating weapons. Jews claimed
that because of the importance of the Arabs in British colonial policy, that
the British generally favored the Arabs. Here we are not sure, but it is a
topic we need to pursue. Even a neutral policy, however, favored the Arabs. Palestine was surrounded by Arab states or colonies
to become Arab states. Thus if the Jews in Palestine had no weapons they would be defenseless
if the neighboring Arab states invaded.
Arab Revolt (1936-39)
The Jerusalem Grand Mufti Hajj Amen
el-Husseinei helped inspire riots and disorders throughout Palestine (April 1936). Six prominent Arab leaders
formed the Arab High Command to protest Zionist activities, especially land
purchases and immigration. The Arab High Command organized a general strike of
Arab workers and a boycott of Jewish products (April 1936). Soon the initial
peaceful actions escalated into attacks on Jews as well as the British
authorities. Riots occurred in Jerusalem and other cities . These disorders, seen
as the first stage of the "Arab Revolt" continued until November,
1936. Another stage of disorders began in September, 1937. The cause was the
Peel Commission which suggested the partition of Palestine. The second stage was much more violent.
There were more intense fighting with British forces as well as attacks on more
Jewish settlements. The British were hard pressed at the time and actually
authorized the arming of the Haganah. The British and the Haganah worked
together. Effective operations were organized by Charles Orde Wingate who later
became famous in Burma. Wingate established Special Night Squads
of Jewish volunteers. The British successfully defeated the Arab Revolt.
Husseini was able to find refuge in Iraq. The British government concerned about
the British position in the Arab world sought to appease Arab opinion with the
1939 White Paper.
Peel Commission (1937)
The British Peel Commission
following on the Arab riots suggested splitting Palestine into a Jewish and Arab state (1937). The
Jewish area would have about 25 percent of the land. At the time there were
about 450,000 Jews in Palestine. The British believed that the much larger and more
populous Arab state would not be economically self-sufficient. Thus the British
saw a need for the Jewish state to support the Arab state. The Commission was
important because it was the first official recognition of partition as a
solution. Most peace outlines since have adopted partition as the solution.
There have been no other possible solution offered. Obtaining agreement from
the parties involved, however, has proven elusive.
British White Paper (1939)
NAZI diplomacy with its
anti-British and anti-Semitic approached appealed to the Arabs. Here they met
considerable sympathy both because of rising anti-Semitism and opposition to
British colonialism. The British attempted to counter this by issuing a White
Paper before the War began withdrawing their support for a Jewish homeland. Palestine's location closed to the Suez Canal made it a possession of some strategic
importance. As Europe moved toward war, the British Government
organized a conference of Arabs and Jews to discuss the future of Palestine and diffuse the disorders that broke out
with the Arab revolt. The meeting became known as the St. James or Round Table Conference of 1939.
The British attempted to bring together Arab and Jewish representatives. The
Jews were represented by the Jewish Agency (Zionist and non-Zionist groups) led
by Chaim Weitzman. The Arabs delegation was led by the Mufti Haj Amin
al-Husseini, but the delegation included the more moderate party of the
well-known al-Nashashibi family. The Arab delegation included non-Palestinian
Arabs (Egypt, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Transjordan, and Yemen). The Conference did not go well.
Al-Husseini refused to even meet with the Jewish representatives. The resulting
British White Paper was crafted to help reverse increasing Arab sympathy with
the NAZI's (1939). The Jewish Agency in Palestine rejected the White Paper and charged that
it was a denial of the Balfour Declaration as well as Britain's responsibilities under the League of
Nations Mandate. The Jews were especially concerned about the British decision
to permanently restrict Jewish immigration, at a time when Jews were being
brutalized by the NAZI's and Fascist forces in other European countries.
Palestine was part of Ottoman Empire for several centuries. The province has a
largely Arab population. Zionism was founded in Europe during the 19th century and promoted
immigration to Palestine with the purpose of founding a Jewish homeland. The Ottoman's
permitted small-scale Jewish immigration. The Ottomans joined the Central
Powers in World War I seeking to regain lost territory in the Balkans. As part
of the operations of the Arab Army and Col T.H. Lawrence and a 1917 British
offensive under Allenby, Palestine fell. After the War, the British
administered Palestine under a League of Nations trusteeship. The rise of Fascism in Europe encouraged many Jews to seek refugee and
strengthened the Zionist movement. The British attempted to restrict Jewish
immigration. The expanding Jewish population also resulted in growing
anti-Semitism among the Palestinians. This had opposition to British colonial
rule caused many Palestinians to sympathize and seek support from the NAZI's.
The League of Nations was dissolved after the World War II. It
was succeeded by the new United Nations (June 26, 1945). The terms of the
Palestine Mandate still unfulfilled. Article 80 of the U.N. Charter covered the
League Mandates including Palestine. Article 80 confirmed that that the
rights created by the Mandate and the terms of the Mandate were not to be
affected. Britain granted Trans-Jordon independence (1946).
This resolved 77 percent of the territory of the League Mandate, turning it
over to the Arabs. A United Nations Committee recommended that the rest of Palestine west of the Jordan River be partitioned between a Arab and Jewish
state and that Jerusalem be made an international city. This meant essentially that
the Jews were receiving a little over 11 percent of the original League
Mandate. The Jews accepted the proposal. The Arabs rejected it and threatened
war if the Jews declared an independent state.
Sources
Fromkin, David. A Peace
To End All Peace.
Gilbert, Martin. Churchill
and the Jews: A Life Long Frienship (Henry Holt: New York, 2007), 359p.
Lawrence, T.E. Letter to Churchill's private
secretary, January 17, 1921, Churchill papers, 17/14.
League of Nations. "The Palestine Mandate," July
24, 1922.
Peters, Joan. From Time
Immemorial: The Origins of the Arab-Jewish Conflict over Palestine.
Wilson, Woodrow. Speech at Pueblo, Colorado, September 25, 1919.
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